Junior Rasmussen
Marriage is a culturally and often legally recognised union between two people, typically involving a ceremony. The first recorded evidence of marriage ceremonies uniting a man and a woman dates back to approximately 2350 BC in ancient Mesopotamia, where wedding ceremonies, dowries, and divorce can be traced. Ancient societies needed a secure environment for the perpetuation of the species, a system of rules to handle the granting of property rights, and the protection of bloodlines, and the institution of marriage handled these needs. Marriage traditions and customs have evolved over time, with the notion of romance and love-based unions becoming more prominent in the Victorian era.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Origin | Marriage originated in Ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) and was brought to Europe by the Ancient Greeks. |
| First recorded evidence | 2350 BC in ancient Mesopotamia. |
| Ancient societies | Marriage served as an alliance between families, with economic and social factors being more important than love. |
| Dowry | Common in ancient societies, with the bride's family giving money or presents to the groom or his family. |
| Bride price | The groom or his family would give money or a present to the bride's family. |
| Arranged marriages | Common in medieval Europe and Victorian England, often for financial gain. |
| Legal recognition | Varies by culture and religion, with some marriages requiring witnesses or a priest. |
| Consent | Pope Nicholas I declared in 866 that consent was necessary for a valid marriage. |
| Engagement rings | Ancient Romans and Egyptians exchanged rings as a symbol of eternity and everlasting union. |
| Equality | Feminism has challenged traditional gender roles, and the legalization of same-sex marriage has broadened the definition of marriage. |
| Purpose | Marriage has shifted from solely a means of procreation and financial gain to also include romantic love. |
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What You'll Learn
Marriage as a legal institution
Marriage is a culturally and often legally recognised union between two people, typically a man and a woman, called spouses. The first recorded evidence of marriage ceremonies dates back to approximately 2350 BC in ancient Mesopotamia, where wedding ceremonies, dowry, and divorce can be traced. The oldest written reference to the institution of marriage comes from Hammurabi's Code of Ancient Mesopotamia, which dates back to around 1800 BC. Marriage came to Europe via the ancient Greeks, who adopted the custom from the Egyptians, although there were no set rules or procedures for a lawful union. The Romans also adopted the custom from the Greeks, adding a further layer of legality and ceremony. In ancient Rome, several forms of marriage existed, depending on whether the woman would join her husband's family or remain associated with her own. A free marriage allowed the wife to own property and retain her family name, as well as keep any property within her family.
In medieval Europe, marriages were often strategic alliances between families based on economic and social factors. They were typically arranged marriages, with the woman's family paying a dowry to the man's family. Marriage was viewed as a commercial transaction, and couples did not marry for love but rather for economic gain. The idea of courtly love and romance emerged in medieval times, with the 12th-century troubadours being the first to think of love in a similar way to how we do now. During the Victorian era, a shift towards romance-based unions occurred, with courtship and elaborate weddings becoming common.
Marriage laws have evolved over time to prohibit incest and for eugenic reasons, with direct blood relatives usually prohibited from marrying. Marriage laws have also played a role in preventing children from being forced into marriages, especially with much older partners, as these can lead to negative educational and health consequences, as well as child sexual abuse and other forms of violence. Despite these laws, child marriages remain common in parts of the world, with the highest rates in rural sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
In modern times, the legal institution of marriage has faced challenges with the emergence of domestic partnerships, which provide legal rights to same-sex couples who were historically denied marriage equality. Domestic partnerships have a complex history, marked by legal battles, social stigma, and unequal benefits. While some states have eliminated domestic partnerships following the legalization of same-sex marriage, others continue to offer them as an alternative to marriage, regardless of gender.
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Ancient marriage records
The concept of marriage predates the Bible, with mentions in ancient records from cultures around the world, including Egypt, China, Rome, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia.
Ancient Mesopotamia and Babylonia
The first recorded evidence of marriage ceremonies uniting a man and a woman dates back to approximately 2350 BC in ancient Mesopotamia. Wedding ceremonies, dowries, and divorce can be traced back to this region.
Ancient Egypt
In ancient Egypt, couples would sign a marriage contract, and the wife took ownership of half of everything owned. Marriage was also a way to keep the royal line pure, with pharaohs marrying their sisters.
Ancient Greece
Marriage in ancient Greece was based more on social responsibility and reproduction than personal relationships. Marriages were usually arranged by the parents, and the goal was to produce legitimate children for the state. The Gortyn Code provides information on the laws surrounding marriage in ancient Gortyn, including the citizenship and political status of any children. Divorce was also an option for both husbands and wives, with financial protections in place for the wife.
Ancient Rome
Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome, and his followers once captured the daughters of a neighboring tribe, the Sabines, to marry them. This practice of capturing women from enemies to procure wives was also common among tribal people, both ancient and modern.
Other Cultures
Other ancient societies, such as the Hebrews, also practiced marriage between close relatives, with the patriarch Abraham marrying his half-sister Sarah. Early nomadic communities in the Middle East practiced a form of marriage called "beena," where the wife owned a tent of her own and retained independence from her husband.
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Marriage traditions
In ancient societies, marriage served as a transactional alliance between families, with economic and social factors taking precedence over romantic love. Arranged marriages were common, with parents seeking to benefit from the union through economic gains or the advancement of their social status. Dowries were often involved, with the bride's family providing money or gifts to the groom or his family.
In ancient Rome, marriage was influenced by Roman mythology, with the legendary founder of Rome, Romulus, playing a role in shaping marriage traditions. During a festival, Romulus and his followers captured and married the daughters of a neighbouring tribe, the Sabines. This led to the peaceful integration of the two groups, highlighting the role of marriage in forming alliances.
In ancient Egypt, marriages were also strategic alliances, and women had more rights within the institution of marriage. For example, a wife owned half of everything her husband owned, and she could sign a marriage contract, protecting her interests.
Medieval Europe saw marriages continue as strategic alliances, often arranged by families. The Victorian Era marked a shift towards romance-based unions, with courtship and elaborate weddings becoming more common. However, the notion of romantic love in marriage only emerged in medieval times, influenced by the troubadours.
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Marriage as a sacraments
Marriage is a culturally and often legally recognised union between two people, called spouses. The definition of marriage varies between cultures and religions, and over time. Marriage ceremonies have been recorded in several ancient cultures, including Egypt, China, Rome, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia.
In Christianity, marriage is considered a sacrament. A Catholic marriage, for instance, is more than a contract; it is a "covenant by which a man and woman establish between themselves a partnership of the whole of life". Catholic matrimonial law, based on Roman law, became the basis for the marriage law of all European countries, at least until the Reformation. The Catholic Church recognises marriages between two baptised non-Catholic Christians, as well as marriages between baptised non-Catholic Christians and Catholic Christians, as sacramental. Weddings in which both parties are Catholic faithful are usually held in a Catholic church.
The sacrament of Christian marriage involves the couple's entire life as they navigate the ups and downs of marriage and become more able to give to and receive from each other. Their life becomes sacramental as they cooperate with God’s action in their life and see themselves as living “in Christ”. Pope Paul VI wrote that the Sacrament of Matrimony strengthens and consecrates the couple for the faithful accomplishment of their duties and vocation.
Marriage is also a liturgical act, appropriately held in a public liturgy at church. One of the Nuptial Blessings in the liturgical celebration of marriage says, "Father, you have made the union of man and wife so holy a mystery that it symbolizes the marriage of Christ and his Church."
In a Sikh marriage, the couple walks around the Guru Granth Sahib holy book four times, and a holy man recites from it in the kirtan style. The ceremony is known as 'Anand Karaj' and represents the holy union of two souls united as one. Wiccan marriages, commonly known as handfastings, involve the couple's wrists being tied together to symbolise the binding of two lives.
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Marriage for economic gain
Marriage is a culturally and legally recognised union between two people, typically involving a sexual relationship. The first recorded evidence of marriage ceremonies uniting a man and a woman dates back to approximately 2350 BC in ancient Mesopotamia. Wedding ceremonies, dowries, and divorce can also be traced back to ancient Mesopotamia and Babylonia. Marriage has taken on different forms in different societies, but it is nearly a cultural universal.
In hunter-gatherer societies, women cooking for men is considered fundamental to marriage. According to Jane Collier and Michelle Rosaldo, a man's need for a wife to provide food is universal among hunter-gatherers. This dynamic is exemplified by the Inuit, where a woman's contribution lay not in food calories, but in cooking and producing warm, dry hunting clothes, allowing men to focus solely on hunting.
In the past, marriage enhanced the economic status of women more than that of men, as relatively few wives worked outside the home. Today, however, the economic gains associated with marriage tend to be greater for men. This shift is partly due to compositional changes, as higher education leads to higher earnings, and today, a married man is more likely to have a wife who contributes financially to the household. Additionally, married couples may be more inclined to invest due to their commitment to each other, and they can divide labour and expenses, leading to increased economic gains.
On a broader scale, states with a larger proportion of married parents tend to have better economic outcomes, including higher GDP per capita, greater upward economic mobility, lower child poverty rates, and higher median family incomes. These findings suggest that marriage can contribute to overall economic growth and development.
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Frequently asked questions
The concept of marriage predates the Bible and can be traced back to ancient civilisations such as Egypt, China, Rome, Persia, Mesopotamia and Babylonia. The first recorded evidence of marriage ceremonies uniting a man and a woman dates back to approximately 2350 BC in ancient Mesopotamia.
Marriage was originally viewed as a commercial transaction or alliance between families to advance or protect their positions. It was also a way to secure the perpetuation of the species, a system of rules to handle the granting of property rights, and the protection of bloodlines. Most couples didn't marry because they were in love but for economic and social gain.
Marriage has evolved from being a transactional arrangement to a union based on love and romance. The notion of romance and courtly love emerged in medieval times, and marriage ceremonies became more elaborate during the Victorian era. In modern times, feminism has challenged traditional gender roles within marriage, divorce has become more prevalent, and the legalisation of same-sex marriage has broadened the definition of marriage.
